Circuit Designation and Circuit Workplace
1. 1. Circuit Notation and Reference Designators................................................ 2
1. 2. Circuit design ............................................................................................... 3
1. 3. Circuit Workplace......................................................................................... 4
1. 3. 1. Breadboard ......................................................................................... 4
1. 3. 2. Printed Circuit Boards (PCB)............................................................. 6
1. 4. Testing Instruments....................................................................................... 17
1. 4. 1. Multimeter........................................................................................... 18
1. 4. 2. Function Generator............................................................................. 22
1. 4. 3.The Oscilloscope.................................................................................. 23
1. 5. Testing Leads................................................................................................ 28
DC Circuits and AC Circuits
2. 1. DC current..................................................................................................... 32
2. 1. 1. Types of DC Voltage Sources............................................................. 32
2. 2. AC Current.................................................................................................... 36
2. 3. Resistors ....................................................................................................... 37
2. 3. 1. Resistor in DC Circuits....................................................................... 37
2. 3. 2. Resistor in AC Circuits....................................................................... 60
2. 4. Capacitor ...................................................................................................... 60
2. 4. 1. Capacitor in DC Circuits..................................................................... 63
2. 4. 2. Capacitor in AC Circuits..................................................................... 67
2. 5. The Basic Inductor........................................................................................ 76
2. 5. 1. Inductor in DC Circuits....................................................................... 77
2. 5. 2. Inductor in AC Circuits....................................................................... 79
Passive Filters and Applications
3. 1. RC Circuit as a Filter.................................................................................... 85
3. 1. 1. RC Low-Pass Filter............................................................................. 85
3. 1. 2. RC High-Pass Filter............................................................................ 92
3. 2. The RL Circuit as a Filter.............................................................................. 98
3. 2. 1. RL Low-Pass filter.............................................................................. 98
3. 2. 2. RL High-Pass Filter............................................................................ 103
3. 3. Series Resonant Filters.................................................................................. 108
3. 3. 1. The Band-Pass Filter........................................................................... 108
3. 3. 2. The Band-Stop Filter........................................................................... 114
3. 4. Parallel Resonant Filters............................................................................... 119
3. 4. 1. The Band-Pass Filters......................................................................... 119
3. 4. 2. The Band-Stop Filter........................................................................... 124
Electromagnetic Devices and Applications
4. 1. The Speaker.................................................................................................. 128
4. 2. The Microphone............................................................................................ 135
4. 2. 1. Dynamic Microphones........................................................................ 136
4. 2. 2. Ribbon microphones........................................................................... 137
4. 2. 3. Condenser Microphone ...................................................................... 139
4. 3. Transformer................................................................................................... 144
4. 3. 1. Transformer Dot Orientation............................................................... 150
4. 4. Electrical DC Motors.................................................................................... 165
4. 4. 1. The Basic DC Motor........................................................................... 166
4. 4. 2. DC Motor Switching and Control....................................................... 170
4. 4. 3. Reversing the Direction of a DC Motor.............................................. 174
4. 5. The Solenoid................................................................................................. 178
4. 5. 1. The Linear Solenoid............................................................................ 179
4. 5. 2. Rotary Solenoid.................................................................................. 182
4. 5. 3. Solenoid Switching............................................................................. 183
4. 5. 4. Reducing energy consumption............................................................ 183
4. 6. The Electromechanical Relay....................................................................... 185
4. 6. 1. Extending the Life of Relay Tips........................................................ 188
4. 6. 2. Relay Configuration, Installation Tips and Switching........................ 189
Sensors and Transducers
5. 1. Light Sensors................................................................................................ 193
5. 1. 1. The Photoconductive Cell................................................................... 193
5. 2. Photo-junction Devices................................................................................. 198
5. 2. 1. Photodiode.......................................................................................... 198
5. 2. 2. The Phototransistor............................................................................. 201
5. 3. Photovoltaic Cells......................................................................................... 203
5. 4. Temperature Sensor....................................................................................... 205
5. 4. 1. The Thermostat................................................................................... 205
5. 4. 2. The Thermistor.................................................................................... 207
5. 4. 3. Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTD)............................................. 214
5. 4. 4. The Thermocouple.............................................................................. 215
5. 5. Position Sensor............................................................................................. 217
5. 6. Light Emitting Diodes................................................................................... 220
5. 6. 1. Light Emitting Diode Colors.............................................................. 220
5. 7. Optocoupler................................................................................................... 224
5. 8. 7-segment display......................................................................................... 226
Transistor and Applications
6. 1. Transistor Overview..................................................................................... 233
6. 1. 2. Transistor Biasing............................................................................... 234
6. 1. 3. Basic Transistor Parameters................................................................ 234
6. 2. Transistor Replacement ................................................................................ 235
6. 3. Transistor Choice Preference ....................................................................... 236
6. 4. Transistor Part Number Specifications.......................................................... 236
6. 4. 1. JEDEC Numbering System ............................................................... 236
6. 4. 2. Pro-electron Numbering System......................................................... 237
6. 4. 3. JIS Numbering System....................................................................... 239
6. 5. Transistor testing and PIN Identification...................................................... 240
6. 5. 1. Diode Check Function........................................................................ 240
6. 5. 2. Testing Unknown Transistor .............................................................. 244
6. 5. 3. Testing MOSFETs............................................................................... 246
6. 6. Most Useful Transistors PIN Configuration................................................. 249
6. 7. TUN and TUP............................................................................................... 253
6. 8. Transistor as Switch...................................................................................... 254
6. 8. 1. Light activated transistor switch......................................................... 259
6. 8. 2. Transistor as switch with temperature sensor .................................... 263
6. 9. Pulse Generators........................................................................................... 269
6. 9. 1. Astable Multivibrator ......................................................................... 269
6. 9. 2. Bistable Multivibrator......................................................................... 272
6. 9. 3. Monostable Multivibrator................................................................... 275
6. 10. Transistor as Amplifier................................................................................ 279
6. 10. 1. Common Emitter Amplifier.............................................................. 279
6. 10. 2. Common Collector Amplifier........................................................... 287
6. 10. 3. Common Base Amplifier.................................................................. 293
Operational Amplifier Circuits
7. 0. Introduction on Integrated Circuit................................................................ 302
7. 0. 1. IC Classifications................................................................................ 302
7. 0. 2. IC Labeling and Manufacture ........................................................... 302
7. 0. 3. Sinking and Sourcing ......................................................................... 304
7. 1. Operational Amplifier................................................................................... 305
7. 1. 1. Powering up the OP-Amp................................................................... 305
7. 1. 2. Comparison of OP-Amp Parameters.................................................. 307
7. 1. 3. Using Negative Feedback................................................................... 308
7. 1. 4. The 741 Operational Amplifier........................................................... 309
7. 2. Op-Amp Comparator ................................................................................... 309
7. 2. 1. Zero-Level Detection.......................................................................... 309
7. 2. 2. Nonzero-Level Detection.................................................................... 312
7. 2. 3. Comparator With different on and off Voltages (Schmitt Trigger)..... 315
7. 3. Op-Amp Comparator as Switch.................................................................... 318
7. 4. Light Activated Switch................................................................................. 321
7. 5. Temperature Activated Switch...................................................................... 333
7. 6. Bargraph Driver............................................................................................ 334
7. 7. Noninverting Amplifier................................................................................. 338
7. 8. Inverting Amplifier........................................................................................ 344
7. 9. Subtractor (differential) Amplifier ............................................................... 348
7. 10. Summing Amplifier..................................................................................... 352
7. 10. 1. Summing Amplifier with Gain Greater Than Unit........................... 353
7. 10. 2. Averaging Amplifier.......................................................................... 353
7. 10. 3. Scaling Adder.................................................................................... 354
7. 10. 4. Waveform Vertical-level Control...................................................... 359
7. 10. 5. Audio mixer..................................................................................... 361
7. 11. The Op-Amp Integrator............................................................................... 363
7. 12. The Op-amp Differentiator......................................................................... 368
7. 13. A Square Wave Relaxation Oscillator......................................................... 372
7. 14. An Active Clamping Circuit........................................................................ 376
7. 15. Active Limiting Circuit............................................................................... 380
7. 16. DC Motor Control....................................................................................... 384
7. 16. 1. DC Motor Speed Control using PWM.............................................. 384
7. 16. 2. DC Motor Direction Control............................................................. 387
7. 16. 3. DC Motor Speed and Direction Control........................................... 389
The 555 timer and Application
8. 1. The 555 timer IC overview........................................................................... 392
8. 2. Monostable 555 Timer.................................................................................. 394
8. 3. Astable 555 Timer......................................................................................... 399
8. 4. Bistable 555 Timer........................................................................................ 403
8. 5. Common Circuits with 555 Timer................................................................ 406
8. 5. 1. 555 Timer as Schmitt Trigger............................................................. 406
8. 5. 2. Metronome ......................................................................................... 408
8. 5. 3. Missing Pulse Detector....................................................................... 409
8. 5. 4. Burglar Alarm (dark detector)............................................................. 410
8. 5. 5. Infrared Beam Barrier for Object Counter.......................................... 412
8. 5. 6. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) with 555 Timer............................... 413
8. 5. 7. Touch Switch with 555 Timer............................................................. 415
8. 6. 555 Timer Circuits’ Practical Considerations............................................... 418
Devices Datasheet.................................................................................. 419