PREFACE v

CONTENTS ix

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE xiv

INTRODUCTION 1

I. THE ORIGINS OF DIALECTIC 7
1. The contingency of human existence 11
2. The soteriology of Plotinus 12
3. Plotinus and Christian Platonism. The search for the reason of creation 17
4. Eriugena and Christian theogony 23
5. Eckhart and the dialectic of deification 31
6. Nicholas of Cusa. The contradictions of Absolute Being 33
7. Bohme and the duality of Being 36
8. Angelus Silesius and Fenelon: salvation through annihilation 37
9. The Enlightenment. The realization of man in the schema of naturalism 39
10. Rousseau and Hume. Destruction of the belief in natural harmony 41
11. Kant. The duality of man’s being, and its remedy 44
12. Fichte and the self-conquest of the spirit 50
13. Hegel. The progress of consciousness towards the Absolute 56
14. Hegel. Freedom as the goal of history 70

II. THE HEGELIAN LEFT 81
1. The disintegration of Hegelianism 81
2. David Strauss and the critique of religion 84
3. Cieszkowski and the philosophy of action 85
4. Bruno Bauer and the negativity of self-consciousness 88
5. Arnold Ruge. The radicalization of the Hegelian Left 92

III. MARX’S THOUGHT IN ITS EARLIEST PHASE 96
1. Early years and studies 96
2. Hellenistic philosophy as understood by the Hegelians 99
3. Marx’s studies of Epicurus. Freedom and self-consciousness 100

IV. HESS AND FEUERBACH 108
1. Hess. The philosophy of action 108
2. Hess. Revolution and freedom 111
3. Feuerbach and religious alienation 114
4. Feuerbach’s second phase. Sources of the religious fallacy 116

V. MARX’S EARLY POLITICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS 120
1. The state and intellectual freedom 120
2. Criticism of Hegel. The state, society, individuality 122
3. The idea of social emancipation 125
4. The discovery of the proletariat 127

VI. THE PARIS MANUSCRIPTS. THE THEORY OF ALIENATED LABOUR. THE YOUNG ENGELS 132
1. Critique of Hegel. Labour as the foundation of humanity 133
2. The social and practical character of knowledge 134
3. The alienation of labour. Dehumanized man 138
4. Critique of Feuerbach 141
5. Engels’s early writings 144

VII. THE HOLY FAMILY 147
1. Communism as a historical trend. The class-consciousness of the proletariat 148
2. Progress and the masses 149
3. The world of needs 150
4. The tradition of materialism 151

VIII. THE GERMAN IDEOLOGY 153
1. The concept of ideology 153
2. Social being and consciousness 155
3. The division of labour, and its abolition 159
4. Individuality and freedom 161
5. Stirner and the philosophy of egocentrism 163
6. Critique of Stirner. The individual and the community 168
7. Alienation and the division of labour 172
8. The liberation of man and the class struggle 173
9. The epistemological meaning of the theory of false consciousness 174

IX. RECAPITULATION 177

X. SOCIALIST IDEAS IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AS COMPARED WITH MARXIAN SOCIALISM 182
1. The rise of the socialist idea 182
2. Babouvism 184
3. Saint-Simonism 187
4. Owen 193
5. Fourier 198
6. Proudhon 203
7. Weitling 211
8. Cabet 213
9. Blanqui 214
10. Blanc 216
11. Marxism and ‘utopian socialism’ 218
12. Marx’s critique of Proudhon 224
13. The Communist Manifesto 227

XI. THE WRITINGS AND STRUGGLES OF MARX AND ENGELS AFTER 1847 234
1. Developments in the 1850s 234
2. Lassalle 238
3. The First International. Bakunin 244

XII. CAPITALISM AS A DEHUMANIZED WORLD. THE NATURE OF EXPLOITATION 262
1. The controversy as to the relation of Capital to Marx’s early writings 262
2. The classical economic tradition and the theory of value 268
3. The double form of value and the double character of labour 271
4. Commodity fetishism. Labour-power as a commodity 276
5. The alienation of labour and of its product 281
6. The alienation of the process of socialization 285
7. The pauperization of the working class 288
8. The nature and historical mission of capitalism 291
9. The distribution of surplus value 294

XIII. THE CONTRADICTIONS OF CAPITAL AND THEIR ABOLITION. THE UNITY OF ANALYSIS AND ACTION 297
1. The falling rate of profit and the inevitable collapse of capitalism 297
2. The economical and political struggle of the proletariat 302
3. The nature of socialism, and its two phases 305
4. The dialectic of Capital: the whole and the part, the concrete and the abstract 312
5. The dialectic of Capital: consciousness and the historical process 319
6. Comments on Marx’s theory of value and exploitation 325

XIV. THE MOTIVE FORCES OF THE HISTORICAL PROCESS 335
1. Productive forces, relations of production, superstructure 335
2. Social being and consciousness 338
3. Historical progress and its contradictions 346
4. The monistic interpretation of social relationships 351
5. The concept of class 352
6. The origin of class 358
7. The functions of the state and its abolition 358
8. Commentary on historical materialism 363

XV. THE DIALECTIC OF NATURE 376
1. The scientistic approach 376
2. Materialism and idealism. The twilight of philosophy 378
3. Space and time 381
4. The variability of nature 382
5. Multiple forms of change 383
6. Causality and chance 384
7. The dialectic in nature and in thought 387
8. Quantity and quality 389
9. Contradictions in the world 390
10. The negation of the negation 392
11. Critique of agnosticism 393
12. Experience and theory 393
13. The relativity of knowledge 395
14. Practice as the criterion of truth 396
15. The sources of religion 397

XVI. RECAPITULATION AND PHILOSOPHICAL COMMENTARY 399
1. Marx’s philosophy and that of Engels 399
2. Three motifs in Marxism 408
3. Marxism as the source of Leninism 416

SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY 421
INDEX 429




Оглавление (Том II)
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE ix

I. MARXISM AND THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL 1

II. GERMAN ORTHODOXY: KARL KAUTSKY 31
1. Life and writings 32
2. Nature and society 34
3. Consciousness and the development of society 40
4. Revolution and socialism 43
5. Critique of Leninism 50
6. Inconsistencies in Kautsky’s philosophy 51
7. A note on Mehring 57

III. ROSA LUXEMBURG AND THE REVOLUTIONARY LEFT 61
1. Biographical information 61
2. The theory of accumulation and the inevitable collapse of capitalism 65
3. Reform and revolution 76
4. The consciousness of the proletariat and forms of political organization 82
5. The national question 88

IV. BERNSTEIN AND REVISIONISM 98
1. The concept of revisionism 98
2. Biographical information 100
3. The laws of history and the dialectic 102
4. The revolution and the ‘ultimate goal’ 105
5. The significance of revisionism 111

V. JEAN JAURES: MARXISM AS A SOTERIOLOGY 115
1. Jaures as a conciliator 115
2. Biographical outline 117
3. The metaphysics of universal unity 120
4. The directing forces of history 125
5. Socialism and the republic 125
6. Jaures’s Marxism 138

VI. PAUL LAFARGUE: A HEDONIST MARXISM 141

VII. GEORGES SOREL: A JANSENIST MARXISM 151
1. The place of Sorel 151
2. Biographical outline 154
3. Rationalism versus history. Utopia and myth. Criticism of the Enlightenment 156
4. Ricorsi. The separation of classes and the discontinuity of culture 162
5. Moral revolution and historical necessity 164
6. Marxism, anarchism, Fascism 170

VIII. ANTONIO LABRIOLA: AN ATTEMPT AT AN OPEN ORTHODOXY 175
1. Labriola’s style 175
2. Biographical note 177
3. Early writings 179
4. Philosophy of history 183

IX. LUDWIK KRZYWICKI: MARXISM AS AN INSTRUMENT OF SOCIOLOGY 193
1. Biographical note 194
2. Critique of the biological theory of society 197
3. Prospects of socialism 198
4. Mind and production. Tradition and change 201

X. KAZIMIERZ KELLES-KRAUZ: A POLISH BRAND OF ORTHODOXY 208

XI. STANISLAW BRZOZOWSKI: MARXISM AS HISTORICAL SUBJECTIVISM 215
1. Biographical note 217
2. Philosophical development 219
3. The philosophy of labour 223
4. Socialism, the proletariat, and the nation 231
5. Brzozowski’s Marxism 236

XII. AUSTRO-MARXISTS, KANTIANS IN THE MARXIST MOVEMENT, ETHICAL SOCIALISM 240
1. The concept of Austro-Marxism 240
2. The revival of Kantianism 243
3. Ethical socialism 245
4. Kantianism in Marxism 247
5. The Austro-Marxists: biographical information 254
6. Adler: the transcendental foundation of the social sciences 258
7. Adler’s critique of materialism and the dialectic 268
8. Adler: consciousness and social being 272
9. What is and what ought to be 274
10. The state, democracy, and dictatorship 276
11. The future of religion 282
12. Bauer: the theory of the nation 285
13. Hilferding: the controversy on the theory of value 290
14. Hilferding: the theory of imperialism 297

XIII. THE BEGINNINGS OF RUSSIAN MARXISM 305
1. Intellectual movements during the reign of Nicholas I 305
2. Herzen 311
3. Chernyshevsky 313
4. Populism and the first reception of Marxism 316

XIV. PLEKHANOV AND THE CODIFICATION OF MARXISM 329
1. The origins of Marxist orthodoxy in Russia 329
2. Dialectical and historical materialism 336
3. Marxist aesthetics 345
4. The struggle against revisionism 347
5. The conflict with Leninism 350

XV. MARXISM IN RUSSIA BEFORE THE RISE OF BOLSHEVISM 354
1. Lenin: early journalistic writings 356
2. Struve and ‘legal Marxism’ 362
3. Lenin’s polemics in 1895-1901 373

XVI. THE RISE OF LENINISM 381
1. The controversy over Leninism 381
2. The party and the workers’ movement. Consciousness and spontaneity 384
3. The question of nationality 398
4. The proletariat and the bourgeoisie in the democratic revolution. Trotsky and the ‘permanent revolution’ 405

XVII. PHILOSOPHY AND POLITICS IN THE BOLSHEVIK MOVEMENT 413

1. Factional struggles at the time of the 1905 Revolution 413
2. New intellectual trends in Russia 419
3. Empiriocriticism 424
4. Bogdanov and the Russian empiriocritics 432
5. The philosophy of the proletariat 441
6. The ‘God-builders’ 446
7. Lenin’s excursion into philosophy 447
8. Lenin and religion 459
9. Lenin’s dialectical Notebooks 461

XVIII. THE FORTUNES OF LENINISM: FROM A THEORY OF THE STATE TO A STATE IDEOLOGY 467
1. The Bolsheviks and the War 467
2. The Revolutions of 1917 473
3. The beginnings of socialist economy 481
4. The dictatorship of the proletariat and the dictatorship of the party 485
5. The theory of imperialism and of revolution 491
6. Socialism and the dictatorship of the proletariat 497
7. Trotsky on dictatorship 509
8. Lenin as an ideologist of totalitarianism 513
9. Martov on the Bolshevik ideology 517
10. Lenin as a polemicist. Lenin’s genius 520

SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY 529
INDEX 537




Оглавление (Том III)
PREFACE v

CONTENTS vii

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE xi

I. THE FIRST PHASE OF SOVIET MARXISM. THE BEGINNINGS OF STALINISM 1
1. What was Stalinism? 1
2. The stages of Stalinism 5
3. Stalin’s early life and rise to power 9
4. Socialism in one country 21
5. Bukharin and the N.E.P. ideology. The economic controversy of the 1920s 25

II. THEORETICAL CONTROVERSIES IN SOVIET MARXISM IN THE 1920s 45
1. The intellectual and political climate 45
2. Bukharin as a philosopher 56
3. Philosophical controversies: Deborin versus the mechanists 63

III. MARXISM AS THE IDEOLOGY OF THE SOVIET STATE 77
1. The ideological significance of the great purges 77
2. Stalin’s codification of Marxism 91
3. The Comintern and the ideological transformation of international Communism 105

IV. THE CRYSTALLIZATION OF MARXISM-LENINISM AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR 117
1. The wartime interlude 117
2. The new ideological offensive 121
3. The philosophical controversy of 1947 125
4. The economic debate 130
5. Marxism-Leninism in physics and cosmology 131
6. Marxist-Leninist genetics 136
7. General effect on Soviet science 139
8. Stalin on philology 141
9. Stalin on the Soviet economy 142
10. General features of Soviet culture in Stalin’s last years 144
11. The cognitive status of dialectical materialism 151
12. The roots and significance of Stalinism. The question of a ‘new class’ 157
13. European Marxism during the last phase of Stalinism 166

V. TROTSKY 183
1. The years of exile 183
2. Trotsky’s analysis of the Soviet system, the bureaucracy, and ‘Thermidor’ 190
3. Bolshevism and Stalinism. The idea of Soviet democracy 194
4. Criticism of Soviet economic and foreign policy 201
5. Fascism, democracy, and war 206
6. Conclusions 212

VI. ANTONIO GRAMSCI: COMMUNIST REVISIONISM 220
1. Life and works 221
2. The self-sufficiency of history; historical relativism 228
3. Critique of‘economism’. Prevision and will 231
4. Critique of materialism 237
5. Intellectuals and the class struggle. The concept of hegemony 240
6. Organization and mass movement. The society of the future 244
7. Summary 249

VII. GYORGY LUKACS: REASON IN THE SERVICE OF DOGMA 253
1. Life and intellectual development. Early writings 255
2. The whole and the part: critique of empiricism 264
3. The subject and object of history. Theory and practice. What is and what ought to be. Critique of neo-Kantianism and evolutionism 269
4. Critique of the ‘dialectic of nature’ and the theory of reflection. The concept of reification 273
5. Class-consciousness and organization 280
6. Critique of irrationalism 284
7. The whole, mediation, and mimesis as aesthetic categories 287
8. Realism, socialist realism, and the avant-garde 292
9. The exposition of Marxist mythology. Commentary 297
10. Lukacs as a Stalinist, and his critique of Stalinism 300

VIII. KARL KORSCH 308
1. Biographical data 309
2. Theory and practice. Movement and ideology. Historical relativism 310
3. Three phases of Marxism 316
4. Critique of Kautsky 318
5. Critique of Leninism 321
6. A new definition of Marxism 322

IX. LUCIEN GOLDMANN 324
1. Life and writings 324
2. Genetic structuralism, Weltanschauung, and class-consciousness 325
3. The tragic world-view 330
4. Goldmann and Lukacs. Comment on genetic structuralism 334

X. THE FRANKFURT SCHOOL AND ‘CRITICAL THEORY’ 341
1. Historical and biographical notes 343
2. Principles of critical theory 352
3. Negative dialectics 357
4. Critique of existential ‘authenticism’ 369
5. Critique of‘enlightenment’ 372
6. Erich Fromm 380
7. Critical theory (continued). Jurgen Habermas 387
8. Conclusion 395

XI. HERBERT MARCUSE: MARXISM AS A TOTALITARIAN UTOPIA OF THE NEW LEFT 396
1. Hegel and Marx versus positivism 397
2. Critique of contemporary civilization 402
3. ‘One-dimensional man’ 407
4. The revolution against freedom 410
5. Commentary 415

XII. ERNST BLOCH: MARXISM AS A FUTURISTIC GNOSIS 421
1. Life and writings 422
2. Basic ideas 426
3. Greater and lesser day-dreams 428
4. Marxism as a ‘concrete Utopia’ 431
5. Death as an anti-Utopia. God does not yet exist, but he will 436
6. Matter and materialism 439
7. Natural law 441
8. Bloch’s political orientation 442
9. Conclusion and comments 445

XIII. DEVELOPMENTS IN MARXISM SINCE STALIN’S DEATH 450
1. ‘De-Stalinization’ 450
2. Revisionism in Eastern Europe 456
3. Yugoslav revisionism 474
4. Revisionism and orthodoxy in France 478
5. Marxism and the ‘New Left’ 487
6. The peasant Marxism of Mao Tse-tung 494

EPILOGUE 523
SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY 531
INDEX 543